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The changing character of religion in modern western societies essay

The changing character of religion in modern western societies essay The changing character of religion in modern western societies essay The changing character of religion in modern western societies essayQuestion 1What changed in the character and role of religion in European societies between 1500 and 1800 to make what we call â€Å"freedom of religion† and â€Å"separation of church and state† the norm nearly everywhere?The character and role of religion in European societies in the1500s and that in the1800s were changed to make what we call â€Å"freedom of religion† and â€Å"separation of church and state† the norm nearly everywhere. Two pictures of religion help to better understand the differences between the character of religion in about 1500 and the other in about 1800.Picture of religion’s character in about 1500Religion in about 1500 is focused on the legitimation of monarchy. Religion is closely connected with politics. This complex relationship between religion and politics influences its character. Religion cannot be viewed as the cause of violence. The language of po litics and the key rituals of politics have powerful religious attributes. Religious wars demonstrate the role of interaction of politics and religion. Actually, the picture of religion’s character in about 1500 is rather vague. The Christian theology provides only one way of thinking (Zagorin, 2003). The state is created by God to ensure peace and harmony and protect citizens. Besides, the state is responsible for upholding the commandments of God the creator, as well as provides protection to church and Christianity as the key religion (Zagorin, 2003).   The ruler of the state is the Christian king who is honored and idealized by all citizens. In Locke’s Letter concerning Toleration, the author tells about religious attitudes (Locke, 1796). Locke is focused on providing evidence of the period of exile in Dutch Republic, which was caused by various political circumstances, including the lack of religious toleration, increased rate of religious persecution and exclus ion from religion. It has been found that in European societies of the1500s, there political authority was connected with religious belief. For example, the issue regarding religious toleration had become very important during the reign of Charles II. The Clarendon Code provided restoration and extension of religious monopoly of the church. The Anglican Church restricted the rights of non-Anglicans. This fact means that in the 1500s, religion was influential. Locke was focused on the defense of toleration. The Protestant Reformation demonstrated religious persecution, when a strict religious regime was established to ban human pleasures and witches. The kings in European countries were focused on having an absolute power over religion and the state. The character of religion of that period can be characterized as violent because heretics were burned at the stake by powerful Catholic inquisitors, and mobs were permitted to commit atrocities in the name of Church and God. Religious wa rs involved Protestant and Catholic armies, demonstrating the lack of religious tolerance. Religious fanaticism was in the basis of that period of history.Picture of religion’s character in about 1800By 1800, â€Å"freedom of religion† or freedom of different Christianizes and â€Å"separation of church and state† had widely, but not completely, become the norm. Religion’s character in about 1800 was focused on toleration of the existing religious differences as well as on protection of â€Å"freedom of religion†.   Religion in the 1800s provided opportunities for the development of the new system of ethics to make society more civilized. Religious justification helped to create new definition of citizenship based on morality and individualism.   Religion played a significant role in the society of the 1800s. European countries entered a new stage of development, the so-called â€Å"age of Enlightenment†. Actually, the picture of religio n’s character in about 1800 was less savage. Religious toleration was in the basis of that period.These two pictures allow the reader to draw clear comparisons, and see what had changed, and how much had changed. The medieval and modern eras provided considerable changes in religious dimensions and attitudes. Religious toleration triumphed over religious persecution. Actually, the philosophy of Enlightenment highlighted religion as social tool to promote new ideas. The mission of religion was to promote social civilization as the basis of the privatization of faith (Kaplan, 2009). Freedom of religion dates back to the period of Reformation that took place in the 1600s. There was a shift in religion which was focused on new inner experience of people. For example, in Dutch culture, the freedom of religion and the separation of church and state were adopted in the Constitution of 1798. As a result, the Dutch Reformed church was established (Kaplan, 2009).The character of religi on of that period reflected the link between civilization and enlightenment, in which Catholic ideas were interviewed with the Protectant ones. In other words, the new freedom of religion provided the opportunities for religious fragmentation that would exist in 20 and 21 centuries.Question 2Why did this change take place? What caused it and explains it? what are the most important factors which explain the changes from the earlier picture to the later picture you described in response to Question 1, and particularly which explain the appearance and gradual acceptance of â€Å"freedom of religion† and â€Å"separation of church and state†?This change took place because there was a necessity to change social, economic and political development of European nations. Freedom of religion was one of the key factors that promoted economic growth and had a strong impact on economic performance of different nations. The separation of church and state fostered new attitudes towa rd religion, including the gradual acceptance of religious freedom (Kaplan, 2009). Reformed Church promoted the ideas of intellectuals, including their radical innovations. This fact means that â€Å"freedom of religion† and â€Å"separation of Church and State† contributed to the growth of civilization and progressive ideas. Actually, the position of the Reformed Church was crucial for the separation between Church and State (Kaplan, 2009). The state authorities realized that without religion, it was impossible to create civilized society. Religion provided the opportunities to develop morality and human values. The separation of Church and State can be explained as complex process aimed at promoting civilized society and reshaping religious freedom (Kaplan, 2009). The noninterference of the state in various religious matters highlights the necessity to promote free exercise of conscience of citizens in religion. Keeping church and state separately means to promote re ligious freedom and fair treatment of various religions. The laws of the state are socially accepted, as well as the laws of religion. This fact means that the laws of the state are firm, and the laws of religion are firm. Thus, church and state should have equal rights. The separation of Church and State promoted equal treatment (Kaplan, 2009). The most important factors which explain the changes from the earlier picture of religion to the later picture of religion described in response to Question 1, are political factors (changes in political relationships), social factors (changes in social attitudes) and economic factors (changes in economic development of the nations). Absolute separation of Church and State reduced the power of religious groups to promote their religious beliefs or practices in government settings, highlighting the principle of equality and national identity.

Nauseated vs. Nauseous

Nauseated vs. Nauseous Nauseated vs. Nauseous Nauseated vs. Nauseous By Maeve Maddox A reader sent me this request: Would you please do a blast-out about the word nauseated versus nauseous? The noun â€Å"blast-out† is new to me, but I presume it means something like the following: a strongly worded admonition to English speakers to get the difference between these two words straight once and for all, blast it! The more I research usage and write about it, the less inclined I am to blast out about anything, especially word pairs like nauseous and nauseated. The supposed distinction is that people are nauseated, whereas nasty, disgusting things are nauseous. For example, women in the early stages of pregnancy often feel nauseated. A stagnant pool of foul-smelling water is nauseous. The OED gives two definitions of the adjective nauseous: 1. Of a thing, causing nausea. 2. Of a person, affected with nausea. For at least 179 years, English speakers have been using nauseous in the sense of â€Å"feeling the urge to throw up†: In speaking of the effect of bloodletting, Mr. Lizars says that ‘the patient feels nauseous and sick even to vomiting’. (OED citation dated 1836). A search on the Ngram Viewer of â€Å"feel nauseated† and â€Å"feel nauseous† shows a convergence of both terms in 2000. In popular usage, nauseous is frequently used to mean nauseated, whereas nauseating has largely replaced it to describe disgusting objects or odors: Drivers of General Motors popular Chevrolet Cruze sedan are complaining that the vehicles new car smell is a  nauseating stench. Everyone’s entitled to defend a preferred usage, even one that’s clearly headed for extinction. One of my own language peeves is to hear the word disinterested in a context that calls for uninterested. In my heart-of-hearts, I know it’s a distinction that goes unobserved more often than not, but I’ll continue to observe it in my own writing and to recommend it to others. Speakers to whom the distinction between nauseous and nauseated is important should observe it in their own speech and writing. Insisting that everyone do it is futile. Like civil public discourse, careful language has become a minority value. Those who care about it don’t need to be blasted; they need only to be informed. Related Articles What To Do About Non-standard English †Disinterested† Is Not the Same as â€Å"Uninterested† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:100 Idioms About NumbersHomonyms, Homophones, Homographs and HeteronymsComma Before Too?

Response Execution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Response Execution - Essay Example These plans may be carried out verbally and informally, especially for incidents that are simple in nature and have short duration by the Incident Commander. Written action plans, are considered whenever there are two or more areas of responsibility involved, the duration of the incident carried on into another operational period, new organizational elements are triggered and if it is required by agency policy (Greene, 2001). Incident management plans are written to clearly provide a statement of objectives and appropriate measures, provide a gauge to ensure efficiency and cost-effectiveness and to provide a basis to assess the progress and accountability of the incident of the incident team (Greene, 2001). A sniper was reported within the vicinity of the power failure area. The said sniper is randomly shooting citizens in the downtown park area. Said area is congested due to the power outage. According to initial reports, two civilians were shot by said sniper and may still be alive. There will be one assigned Incident Commander (IC) who will directly have the overall responsibility of the resolution of the situation. In this exercise, the Governor of Arizona is the most likely candidate as he/she is mandated by State of Arizona to execute the Emergency Response and Recovery Plan (SERRP), the ICS management plan of the state (State of Arizona, 2003). The IC shall oversee the functions of the incident command system (ICS) and their respective section chiefs - operations (responsible for direct tactical actions), planning (responsible for preparation of action plan, resource maintenance and situational status), logistics (provide support), finance administration (procurement of supplies and cost accounting), information officer, safety officer and other representatives from assisting agencies. (Greene, 2001). The unified command ICS structure will be used, as it is the structure being utilized by the SERRP. Due to the potentially wider scope and further implications of the scenarios, the Governor of

International financial market INDIVIDUAL 5 Essay

International financial market INDIVIDUAL 5 - Essay Example Using the above percentages on $100 Million portfolio we find that: The investment seeks current income with a secondary focus on capital appreciation. The fund invests in equity securities, bonds and money markets instruments. The target asset allocation of approximately 5% cash, 40% equities and 55% fixed income is enhanced. The actual asset class allocation can deviate from time to time from these targets as markets conditions warrants. The implementation of asset may involve the extensive use of equity and fixed-income exchange-traded funds. The investment policy based on moderate conservative allocation can be summarized in the table format below: Type of investment Percentage asset allocation Value Fixed-income 55 55 Cash and equivalents 5 5 Stocks 40 40 Total %100 $100 The multinational corporation can raise money for long term investment through primary capital markets. The decision can be made either to invest through bonds or shares. To avoid increasing its debt, expertise help is required. Shares offer the potential for higher returns and capital gains if the company is successfully progressing. (Davis, 1995). On the other hand if the corporation is doing poorly then bonds are safer as they are not susceptible to fall in price and in the event of bankruptcy bond owners are paid before shareholders. Raising finance from primary markets involves the process of face-to-face meetings. In the event that shares or bonds are chosen, the corporation will

Organisational cultures Essay Example for Free

Organisational cultures Essay Introduction: defining culture The concept of culture has become increasingly significant in education during the 1990s and into the twenty-first century. This enhanced interest may be understood as an example of dissatisfaction with the limitations of those leadership and man- agement models which stress the structural and technical aspects of schools and colleges. The focus on the intangible world of values and attitudes is a useful counter to these bureaucratic assumptions and helps to produce a more balanced portrait of educational institutions. Culture relates to the informal aspects of organisations rather then their official elements. They focus on the values, beliefs and norms of individuals in the organi- sation and how these individual perceptions coalesce into shared meanings. Culture is manifested by symbols and rituals rather than through the formal structure of the organization: Beliefs, values and ideology are at the heart of organisations. Individuals hold certain ideas and value-preferences which influence how they behave and how they view the behaviour of other members. These norms become shared traditions which are communicated within the group and are rein- forced by symbols and ritual. (Bush 2003, p.156). The developing importance of culture arises partly from a wish to understand, and operate more effectively within, this informal domain of the values and beliefs of teachers, support staff and other stakeholders. Morgan (1997) and ONeill (1994) both stress the increasing significance of cultural factors in leadership and manage- ment. The latter charts the appearance of cultural labels and suggests why they have become more prevalent: The increased use of such cultural descriptors in the literature of educational management is significant because it reflects a need for educational organiza- tions to be able to articulate deeply held and shared  values in more tangible ways and therefore respond more effectively to new, uncertain and potentially  threatening demands on their capabilities. Organizations, therefore, articulate values in order to provide form and meaning for the activities of organiza- tional members in the absence of visible and certain organizational structures and relationships. In this sense the analysis and influence of organizational culture become essential management tools in the pursuit of increased orga- nizational growth and effectiveness. (ONeill, 1994, p.116) The shift towards self-management in many countries reinforces the notion of schools and colleges as unique entities with their own distinctive features or cul- ture. It is inevitable that self-management will lead to greater diversity and, in Eng- land, this is one of the Governments explicit aims. Caldwell and Spinks (1992) argue that there is a culture of self- management. The essential components of this culture are the empowerment of leaders and their acceptance of responsibility. Societal culture Most of the literature on culture in education relates to organisational culture and that is also the main focus of this chapter. However, there is also an emerging liter- ature on the broader theme of national or societal culture. Dimmock and Walker (2002a, p.3) claim that the field of educational administration †¦ has largely ignored the influence of societal culture but their work has contributed to an increasing awareness of this concept. Given the globalisation of education, issues of societal culture are increasingly sig- nificant. Walker and Dimmock (2002) refer to issues of context and stress the need to avoid decontextualized paradigms (p.1) in researching and analysing educa- tional systems and institutions: The field of educational leadership and management has developed along eth- nocentric lines, being heavily dominated by Anglo-American paradigms and theories †¦ Frequently, either a narrow ethnicity pervades research and policy, or an implicit assumption is made that findings in one part of the world will necessarily apply in others. It is clear that a key factor missing from many debates on educational administration and leadership is context †¦ context is represented by societal culture and its mediating influence on theory, policy and practice. (Walker and Dimmock 2002, p.2) Walker and Dimmock are by no means alone in advocating attention to issues of context. Crossley and Broadfoot (1992, p.100) say that policies and practice cannot be translated intact from one culture to another since the mediation of different cultural contexts can quite transform the latters salience while Bush et al. (1998, p.137) stress that all theories and interpretations of practice must be grounded in the specific context †¦ before they can be regarded as useful. LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION48 Dimmock and Walker (2002b, p.71) have given sustained attention to these issues and provide a helpful distinction between societal and organizational culture: Societal cultures differ mostly at the level of basic values, while organizational cultures differ mostly at the level of more superficial practices, as reflected in the recognition of particular symbols, heroes and rituals. This allows organiza- tional cultures to be deliberately managed and changed, whereas societal or national cultures are more enduring and change only gradually over longer time periods. School leaders influence, and in turn are influenced by, the orga- nizational culture. Societal culture, on the other hand, is a given, being out- side the sphere of influence of an individual school leader. (Our emphasis) Dimmock and Walker (2002b) identify seven dimensions of societal culture,  each of which is expressed as a continuum: 1 Power-distributed/power concentrated: power is either distributed more equally among the various levels of a culture or is more concentrated. 2 Group-oriented/self-oriented: people in self-oriented cultures perceive themselves to be more independent and self-reliant. In group-oriented cultures, ties between people are tight, relationships are firmly structured and individual needs are sub- servient to the collective needs. 3 Consideration/aggression: in aggression cultures, achievement is stressed, competi- tion dominates and conflicts are resolved through the exercise of power and assertiveness. In contrast, consideration societies emphasise relationship, solidar- ity and resolution of conflicts by compromise and negotiation. 4 Proactivism/fatalism: this dimension reflects the proactive or we can change things around here attitude in some cultures, and the willingness to accept things as they are in others a fatalistic perspective. 5 Generative/replicative: some cultures appear more predisposed towards innovation, or the generation of new ideas and methods, whereas other cultures appear more inclined to replicate or to adopt ideas and approaches from elsewhere. 6 Limited relationship/holistic relationship: in limited relationship cultures, interac- tions and relationships tend to be determined by explicit rules which are applied to everyone. In holistic cultures, greater attention is given to relationship oblig- ations, for example kinship, patronage and friendship, than to impartially applied rules. 7 Male influence/female influence: in some societies, the male domination of deci- sion-making in political, economic and professional life is perpetuated. In others, women have come to play a significant role. (adapted from Dimmock and Walker 2002b, pp.74-6). This model can be applied to educational systems in different countries. Bush and Qiang (2000) show that most of these dimensions are relevant to Chinese education: 49ORGANISATIONAL CULTURES †¢ Power is concentrated in the hands of a limited number of leaders. The principal has positional authority within an essentially bureaucratic system †¦ China might be regarded as the archetypal high power-distance (power-concentrated) society (p.60). †¢ Chinese culture is group oriented. Collective benefits [are] seen as more important than individual needs (p.61). †¢ Chinese culture stresses consideration rather than aggression. The Confucian scholars advocate modesty and encourage friendly co-operation, giving priority to peoples relationships. The purpose of education is to mould every individual into a harmonious member of society (p.62). †¢ Patriarchal leadership dominates in education, business, government and the Communist Party itself. There are no women principals in the 89 secondary schools in three counties of the Shaanxi province. Coleman et al. (1998, p.144) attribute such inequalities to the continuing dominance of patriarchy. Societal culture is one important aspect of the context within which school leaders must operate. Leaders and managers must also be aware of organisational culture which provides a more immediate framework for leadership action. Principals and others can help to shape culture but they are also influenced by it. Chapter 7, for example, refers to the need for educational leaders to be aware of the societal cul- ture underpinning schools and colleges so that appropriate equal opportunities policies and practices can be developed. Central features of organisational culture Organisational culture has the following major features (Bush 2003): 1 It focuses on the values and beliefs of members of organisations. These values underpin the behaviour and attitudes of individuals within schools and colleges but they may not always be explicit. These individual beliefs coalesce into shared values: Shared values, shared beliefs, shared meaning, shared understanding, and shared sensemaking are all different ways of describing culture †¦ These pat- terns of understanding also provide a basis for making ones own behaviour sen- sible and meaningful (Morgan, 1997, p.138). This does not necessarily mean that individual values are always in harmony with one another. Morgan (1997, p.137) suggests that there may be different and competing value systems that create a mosaic of organizational realities rather than a uniform corporate culture. Dissonance is more likely in large, multipur- pose organisations such as colleges and universities but Nias et al. (1989) note that they may also exist in primary education. Fullan and Hargreaves (1992, pp. 71-2) argue that some schools develop a balkanized culture made up of separate and sometimes competing groups: LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION50 Teachers in balkanized cultures attach their loyalties and identities to particular groups of their colleagues. They are usually colleagues with whom they work most closely, spend most time, socialize most often in the staffroom. The existence of such groups in a school often reflects and reinforces very different group outlooks on learning, teaching styles, dis- cipline and curriculum. Staff working in sub-units, such as departments, may develop their own dis- tinctive subculture and middle managers, or middle level leaders as the NCSL prefers to call them, may wish to cultivate this as a way of developing and enhancing team effectiveness. However, as Fullan and Hargreaves (1992)  imply, such subcultures may not be consistent with the whole-school or college culture. 2 Organisational culture emphasises the development of shared norms and mean- ings. The assumption is that interaction between members of the organisation, or its subgroups, eventually leads to behavioural norms that gradually become cul- tural features of the school or college. Nias et al.s (1989, pp.39-40) research shows how group norms were established in their case-study schools: As staff talked, worked and relaxed together, they began to negotiate shared meanings which enabled them to predict each others behaviour. Consequently each staff developed its own taken-for-granted norms. Because shared meanings and ways of behaving became so taken for granted, existing staff were largely unaware of them. But they were visi- ble to newcomers †¦ Researchers moving between schools were con- stantly reminded of the uniqueness of each schools norms. These group norms sometimes allow the development of a monoculture in a school with meanings shared throughout the staff the way we do things around here. We have already noted, however, that there may be several subcul- tures based on the professional and personal interests of different groups. These typically have internal coherence but experience difficulty in relationships with other groups whose behavioural norms are different. Wallace and Hall (1994, pp.28 and 127) identify senior management teams (SMTs) as one example of group culture with clear internal norms but often weak connections to other groups and individuals: SMTs in our research developed a culture of teamwork †¦ A norm com- mon to the SMTs was that decisions must be reached by achieving a working consensus, entailing the acknowledgement of any dissenting views †¦ there was a clear distinction between interaction inside the team and contact with those outside †¦ [who] were excluded from the inner world of the team. 3 Culture is typically expressed through rituals and ceremonies which are  used to support and celebrate beliefs and norms. Schools, in particular, are rich in such symbols as assemblies, prize-givings and corporate worship. Hoyle (1986, pp.150  and 152) argues that ritual is at the heart of cultural models: Symbols are a key component of the culture of all schools †¦ [they] have expressive tasks and sym- bols which are the only means whereby abstract values can be conveyed †¦ Sym- bols are central to the process of constructing meaning. (Hoyle 1986, pp.150-2). School culture may be symbolized through three modes: (a) Conceptually or verbally, for example through use of language and the expres- sion of organisational aims. (b) Behaviourally, through rituals, ceremonies, rules, support mechanisms, and patterns of social interaction. (c) Visually or materially, through facilities, equipment, memorabilia, mottoes, crests and uniforms. (Beare et al. 1989, p.176). Schein (1997, p.248) argues that rites and rituals [are] central to the deciphering as well as to the communicating of cultural assumptions. 4 Organisational culture assumes the existence of heroes and heroines who embody the values and beliefs of the organisation. These honoured members typify the behaviours associated with the culture of the institution. Campbell-Evans (1993, p. 106) stresses that heroes or heroines are those whose achievements match the cul- ture: Choice and recognition of heroes †¦ occurs within the cultural boundaries identified through the value filter †¦ The accomplishments of those individuals who come to be regarded as heroes are compatible with the cultural emphases. This feature is evident in South Africa, for example, where the huge interest in school sport means that sporting heroes are identified and celebrated. This was evident, for example, in a Durban school visited by one of the authors, where for- mer student Shaun Pollock, the South African fast bowler, had numerous pho- tographs on display and a room named after him. In celebrating the achievements of this cricketing hero, school managers are seeking to emphasise the centrality of sporting achievement to the ethos and culture of the school. Developing a culture of learning in South Africa As we noted earlier (p.000), societal or national culture underpins the organisa- tional culture of individual schools and colleges. Nowhere is this more apparent than in South African schools where the predominant culture reflects the wider social structure of the post-apartheid era. Decades of institutionalised racism and injustice have been replaced by an overt commitment to democracy in all aspects of life, including education. Ngcobo (2003) addresses issues of cultural diversity and, drawing on Irvine (1990), identifies nine dimensions of African culture: †¢ Spirituality: life is viewed as vitalistic rather than mechanistic. †¢ Harmony: humans and nature live interdependently and in harmony. LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION52 †¢ Movement: rhythm, music and dance. †¢ Verve: high levels of stimulation. †¢ Affect: emotions and feelings. †¢ Communalism: social connectedness and an awareness of responsibilities to the  group transcending individual privileges. †¢ Expressive individualism: genuine personal expression. †¢ Oral tradition: oral/aural metaphors and colourful forms. †¢ Social time perspective: time as social rather than material space (adapted from Ngcobo 2003, p.224). Ngcobo (2003) notes that these cultural features are very different from European cultures. Such cultural differences became particularly significant as schools began to change their racial composition in response to the South African Schools Act (1996), which made it illegal to deny admission to students on the basis of race. For- merly white schools, with a predominantly European culture, began to assimilate learners, and to a lesser extent educators, from different cultural backgrounds. Ngcobo (2003) gives two contrasting examples of how school leaders responded to these cultural changes. Vryburg high school avoided cultural diversity by dividing the premises into two sections (white and black). This had several deleterious con- sequences, including conflict leading to charges of assault being laid against 14 black learners and seven parents of white students. Greenland secondary school in Durban adopted a different approach, aiming at cultural diversity and encouraging learners and staff to express and celebrate their own cultures. This school has been very successful academically which the principal attributes to the strong integrative culture it promotes (Ngcobo 2003, p.230). The years of struggle against apartheid inevitably affected schools, particularly those in the townships. One of the weapons of the black majority was for young- sters to strike and demonstrate against the policies of the white government. Sim- ilarly, teacher unions were an important aspect of the liberation movement and teachers would frequently be absent from school to engage in protest activity. It is perhaps inevitable that a culture of learning was difficult to establish in such a hos- tile climate. Badat (1995, p.143) claims that the crisis in black education, including what has come to be referred to as the breakdown in the culture of learning †¦ continued unabated. This issue surfaced in Bush and Andersons (2003) survey of school principals in the KwaZulu/Natal province. In response to a question about the aims of the school, principals stated that: †¢ the school is striving to instill in the minds of learners that education is their future †¢ to show the importance of education within and outside the school †¢ to provide a conducive educational environment †¢ to develop a culture of learning. 53ORGANISATIONAL CULTURES The absence of a culture of learning in many South African schools illustrates the long-term and uncertain nature of cultural change. The long years of resistance to apartheid education have to be replaced by a commitment to teaching and learn- ing if South Africa is to thrive in an increasingly competitive world economy. How- ever, educational values have to compete with the still prevalent discourse of struggle and also have to reconcile the diverse value systems of the different sub- cultures in South Africas integrated schools. It seems likely that the development of a genuine culture of learning will be slow and dependent on the quality of lead- ership in individual schools. Leadership and culture We noted earlier (p.000) that societal culture is beyond the control of educational leaders but heads and principals are able to influence organisational culture. Arguably, they have the main responsibility for generating and sustaining culture and communicating core values and beliefs both within the organization and to external stakeholders (Bush 1998, p.43). Heads and principals have their own val- ues and beliefs arising from many years of successful professional practice. They are also expected to embody the culture of the school or college. Hoyle (1986, pp.155-6) stresses the symbolic dimension of leadership and the central role of heads in defining school culture: Few heads will avoid constructing an image of the school. They will differ in the degree to which this is a deliberate and charismatic task. Some heads †¦Ã‚  will self- consciously seek to construct a great mission for the school. Others will convey their idea of the school less dramatically and construct a meaning from the basic materials of symbol-making: words, actions, artefacts and settings. Schein (1997, p.211) argues that cultures spring primarily from the beliefs, values and assumptions of founders of organisations. Nias et al. (1989, p. 103) suggest that heads are founders of their schools culture. They refer to two of their English case study schools where new heads dismantled the existing culture in order to create a new one based on their own values. The culture was rebuilt through example: All the heads of the project schools were aware of the power of example. Each head expected to influence staff through his/her example. Yet their actions may also have been symbolic of the values they tried to represent. Nias et al. (1989) also mention the significance of co-leaders, such as deputy heads and curriculum co-ordinators, in disseminating school culture. Deal (1985, pp.615-18) suggests several strategies for leaders who wish to gener- ate culture: †¢ Document the schools history to be codified and passed on. †¢ Anoint and celebrate heroes and heroines. LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION54 †¢ Review the schools rituals to convey cultural values and beliefs. †¢ Exploit and develop ceremony. †¢ Identify priests, priestesses and gossips, and incorporate them into mainstream  activity. This provides access to the informal communications network. One of the ways in which leaders can shape or change culture is through the appointment of other staff who have the same values and beliefs, leading to cultural consonance. In this view, the staff selection process provides an opportunity to set out the values of the school, or its leaders, in the hope  that those who hold similar values will be attracted to the post while others will be deterred from making or pur- suing an application. Over time, the culture of the school will shift in the direction sought by the principal. The literature on collegiality (e.g. Bush 2003) shows that leaders are more likely to cede power to others when they are confident that their own educational values will not be compromised by doing so. Foskett and Lumby (2003) point out that staff selection processes are themselves subject to cultural variables. They draw on Akinnusi (1991) to distinguish between universalistic and particularistic approaches to selection. The universalistic approach, as discussed in Chapter 9 of this volume, for example, attempts to match applicants to objective criteria and is thought to be more successful in identifying the best match to the vacant post (Foskett and Lumby 2003, p.71). These authors contrast this model with the particularistic approach adopted, for example, in Africa and in China. Here, selection is shaped by the personal affiliation of the players, for example kinship, religion, ethnic or political similarities (p.70). This approach is likely to be successful in ensuring that the appointees have similar val- ues to the leaders. Using cultural criteria to appoint new staff may help to modify culture but the established staff, and inertia, may still ensure that change is highly problematic. Reynolds (1996) refers to one school where the prevailing culture was posing severe difficulties for any purported change attempts (p.153). He point to multiple barri- ers to change including: †¢ staff wanted top down change and not ownership †¢ weve always done it this way †¢ individual reluctance to challenge the prevailing culture †¢ staff blaming childrens home background for examination failure †¢ numerous personality clashes, personal agendas and fractured interpersonal rela-tionships (Reynolds 1996, pp.153-4). This example illustrates the difficulty of attempting to impose cultural change. As one former college principal stresses, [it is] dangerous †¦ for  managers to move too fast on cultural change (Bridge 1994, p.197). Turner (1990, p.11) acknowledges the pressures on leaders to mould culture but rejects the belief that something as pow- erful as culture can be much affected by the puny efforts of top managers. 55ORGANISATIONAL CULTURES Hargreaves (1999, p.59) makes a similar point, claiming that most peoples beliefs, attitudes and values are far more resistant to change than leaders typically allow. He identifies three circumstances when culture may be subject to rapid change: †¢ The school faces an obvious crisis, for example a highly critical inspection report or falling pupil numbers, leading to the prospect of staff redundancies or school closure. †¢ The leader is very charismatic, commanding instant trust, loyalty and fellowship. This may enable cultural change to be more radical and be achieved more quickly. †¢ The leader succeeds a very poor principal. Staff will be looking for change to instil a new sense of direction (adapted from Hargreaves 1999, pp.59-60). These points may also apply to sub-units and subcultures. Hargreaves (1999, p.60) concludes that, if none of these special conditions applies, assume that cultural change will be rather slow. Leaders also have responsibility for sustaining culture, and cultural maintenance is often regarded as a central feature of effective leadership. Sergiovanni (1984, p.9) claims that the cultural aspect is the most important dimension of leadership. Within his leadership forces hierarchy, the cultural element is more significant than the technical, human and educational aspects of leadership: The net effect of the cultural force of leadership is to bond together  students, teachers, and others as believers in the work of the school †¦ As persons become members of this strong and binding culture, they are provided with opportunities for enjoying a special sense of personal importance and significance. Limitations of organisational culture The concept of organisational culture provides several useful elements to the lead- ership and management of people in schools and colleges. The focus on the infor- mal dimension is a valuable counter to the rigid and official components of the formal models. By stressing the values and beliefs of participants, culture reinforces the human aspects of management rather than their structural elements. However, this approach has three significant weaknesses (Bush 2003): 1 The notion of organisational culture may simply be the imposition of the leaders values on other members of the organisation. The search for a monoculture may mean subordinating the values and beliefs of some participants to those of leaders or the dominant group. Shared cultures may be simply the values of leaders imposed on less powerful people. Morgan (1997) refers to a process of ideological  control and warns of the risk of manipulation: Ideological manipulation and control is being advocated as an essential managerial strategy †¦ such manipulation may well be accompanied by resistance, resentment and mistrust †¦ where the culture controls rather than expresses human character, the metaphor may thus prove quite manipulative and totalitarian in its influence. (pp.150-1) Prosser (1999, p.4) refers to the dark underworld of school culture and links it to the concept of micropolitics: The micro-political perspective recognized that formal powers, rules, regulations, traditions and rituals  were capable of being subverted by individuals, groups or affiliations in schools. Hargreaves (1999, p.60) uses the term resistance group to refer to sub-units seeking to subvert lead- ers and their intended cultural change. However, this may simply be a legitimate attempt to enunciate the specific values of, for example, departmental culture. 2 The portrayal of culture may be unduly mechanistic, assuming that leaders can determine the culture of the organisation (Morgan 1997). While they have influ- ence over the evolution of culture by espousing desired values, they cannot ensure the emergence of a monoculture. As we have seen, secondary schools and colleges may have several subcultures operating in departments and other sec- tions. This is not necessarily dysfunctional because successful sub-units are vital components of thriving institutions, and successful middle-level leadership and management are increasingly regarded as essential to school and college effec- tiveness (Harris 2002; Briggs 2003). In an era of self-managing schools and colleges in many countries, lay influ- ences on policy are increasingly significant. Governing bodies often have the for- mal responsibility for major decisions and they share in the creation of institutional culture. This does not mean simple acquiescence to the values of the head or principal. Rather, there may be negotiation leading to the possibility of conflict and the adoption of policies inconsistent with the leaders own values. 3 Hoyle (1986) argues that symbols may misrepresent the reality of the school or college. He suggests that schools may go through the appearance of change but the reality continues as before: A symbol can represent something which is real in the sense that it †¦ acts as a surrogate for reality †¦ there will be a mutual recognition by the parties concerned that the substance has not been evoked but they are nevertheless content to sustain the fiction that it has if there has been some symbolization of the substance †¦ in reality the system carries on as formerly. (p.166) Schein (1997, p.249) also warns against placing too much reliance on ritual. When the only salient data we have are the rites and rituals that have survived over a period of time, we must, of course, use them as best we  can †¦ however †¦ it is difficult to decipher just what assumptions lead- ers have held that have led to the creation of particular rites and rituals. Conclusion: people and culture The belief that schools and colleges are unique entities is gaining ground as people increasingly recognise the importance of the specific contexts, internal and exter- nal, which provide the frameworks within which leaders and managers must oper- ate. Despite the pressures of globalisation, understanding and managing the school context is a vital dimension of leadership in the twenty-first century. Values and beliefs are not universal and a one size fits all model does not work for nations any more than it does for schools. The recognition that school and college development needs to be preceded by attitudinal change is also salutary, and is consistent with the view that teachers must feel ownership of change if it is to be implemented effectively. Externally imposed innovation often fails because it is out of tune with the values of the teach- ers who have to implement it. Since organization ultimately resides in the heads of the people involved, effective organizational change always implies cultural change (Morgan 1997, p.150). The emphasis on values and symbols may also help to balance the focus on struc- ture and process in many of the other models. The informal world of norms and rit- ual behaviour may be just as significant as the formal elements of schools and colleges. Even the most concrete and rational  aspects of organization whether structures, hierarchies, rules, or organizational routines embody social construc- tions and meanings that are crucial for understanding how organization functions day to day (Morgan 1997, p.146). Culture also provides a focus for organisational action. Effective leaders often seek to influence values so that they become closer to, if not identical with, their own beliefs. In this way, they hope to achieve widespread support for, or ownership of, new policies. By working through this informal domain, rather than imposing change through positional authority or political processes, heads, principals and other leaders, including middle managers, are more likely to gain support for inno- vation. An understanding of both societal and organisational culture also provides a sound basis for leading and managing people in education. In many countries, schools and colleges are becoming multicultural, and recognition of the rich diver- sity of the cultural backgrounds of students, parents and staff is an essential element in school management. Similarly, all educational organisations have certain dis- tinctive features and understanding and managing this cultural apparatus is vital if leadership is to be in tune with the prevailing norms and values. An appreciation of the relevance of both societal and organisational culture, and of the values, beliefs and rituals that underpin them, is an important element in the leadership  and management of schools and colleges. References Akinnusi, D. (1991), Personnel management in Africa, in Brewster, C. and Tyson, S. (eds), International Comparisons in Human Resource Management, London, Pitman. Badat, S. (1995), Educational politics in the transition period, Comparative Educa- tion, 31 (2), 141-159. Beare, H., Caldwell, B. and Millikan, R (1989), Creating an Excellent School: Some New Management Techniques, London, Routledge. Bridge, W. (1994), Change where contrasting cultures meet, in Gorringe, R. (ed.), Changing the Culture of a College, Blagdon, Coombe Lodge Reports. Briggs, A. (2003), Finding the balance: exploring the organic and mechanical dimensions of middle managers roles in English further education colleges, Edu- cational Management and Administration, 31 (4), 421-436. Bush, T. (1998), Organisational culture and strategic management, in Middlewood, D. and Lumby, J. (eds), Strategic Management in Schools and Colleges, London, Paul Chapman Publishing. Bush, T. (2003), Theories of Educational Leadership and Management: Third Edition, London, Sage. Bush, T. and Anderson, L. (2003), Organisational culture, in Thurlow, M., Bush, T. and Coleman, M. (eds), Leadership and Strategic Management in South African Schools, London, Commonwealth Secretariat. Bush, T. and Qiang, H. (2000), Leadership and culture in Chinese education, Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 20 (2), 58-67. Bush, T., Qiang, H. and Fang, J. (1998), Educational management in China: an overview, Compare, 28 (2), 133-140. Caldwell, B. and Spinks, J. (1992), Leading the Self-Managing School, London, Falmer Press. Campbell-Evans, G. (1993), A values perspective on school-based management, in C. Dimmock (ed.), School-Based Management and School Effectiveness, London, Routledge. Coleman, M., Qiang, H. and Li, Y.(1998), Women in educational management in China: experience in Shaanxi province, Compare, 28 (2), 141-154. Crossley, M. and Broadfoot, P. (1992), Comparative and international research in education: scope, problems and potential, British Educational Research Journal, 18, 99-112. Deal, T. (1985) The symbolism of effective schools, Elementary School Journal, 85 (5), 605-20. Dimmock, C. and Walker, A. (2002a), An international view of the principalship and its development: allowing for cultural context no one best practice model, paper presented at the National College for School Leadership International Conference, Nottingham, October. Dimmock, C. and Walker, A. (2002b), School leadership in context societal and organizational cultures, in Bush, T. and Bell, L. (eds), The Principles and Practice of Educational Management, London, Paul Chapman Publishing. Foskett, N. and Lumby, J. (2003), Leading and Managing Education: International Dimensions, London, Paul Chapman Publishing. Fullan, M. and Hargreaves, A. (1992) Whats Worth Fighting for in Your School? Buck- ingham, Open University Press. Hargreaves, D. (1999), Helping practitioners explore their schools culture, in J.Prosser (ed.), School Culture, London, Paul Chapman Publishing. Harris, A. (2002), Effective leadership in schools facing challenging circumstances, School Leadership and Management, 22 (1), 15-26. Hoyle, E. (1986), The Politics of School Management, Sevenoaks, Hodder and Stoughton. Irvine, J. (1990), Black Students and School Failure, New York, Greenwood Press. Morgan, G. (1997), Images of Organization, Newbury Park, CA, Sage. Nias, J., Southworth, G. and Yeomans, R. (1989), Staff Relationships in the Primary School, London, Cassell. Ngcobo, T. (2003), Managing multicultural contexts, in Lumby, J., Middlewood, D. and Kaabwe, E. (eds), Managing Human Resources in South African Schools, London, Commonwealth Secretariat. ONeill, J. (1994), Organizational structure and culture, in Bush, T. and West-Burn- ham, J. (eds), The Principles of Educational Management, Harlow, Longman. Prosser, J. (1999), School Culture, London, Paul Chapman Publishing. Reynolds, D. (1996), Turning round ineffective schools: some evidence and some speculations, in Gray, J., Reynolds, D., Fitzgibbon, C. and Jesson, D. (eds), Merg- ing Traditions: The Future of Research on School Effectiveness and School Improvement, London, Cassell. Schein, E. (1997), Organizational Culture and Leadership, San Francisco, CA, Jossey- Bass. Sergiovanni, T. (1984) Cultural and competing perspectives in administrative the- ory and practice, in Sergiovanni, T. and Corbally, J. (eds), Leadership and Organi- zational Culture, Chicago, IL, University of Illinois Press. Turner, C. (1990), Organisational Culture, Blagdon, Mendip Papers. Walker, A. and Dimmock, C. (2002), Introduction, in Walker, A. and Dimmock, C. (eds), School Leadership and Administration: Adopting a Cultural Perspective, London, RoutledgeFalmer. Wallace, M. and Hall, V. (1994) Inside the SMT: Teamwork in Secondary School Man- agement, London, Paul Chapman Publishing.

What Constitutes Knowledge? Essay -- Definition Educating Knowing Essa

What Constitutes Knowledge?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The workings of the mind have been the focus of philosophers from the beginnings of humanity. One primary focal point that has been pondered over by numerous thinkers is what exactly constitutes knowledge. At first glance the issue seems to be cut and dry but the question gets more complicated with thought. This can be witnessed by the many different epistemological theories put forward throughout the ages. This can specifically be seen by looking at 4 different classical views on knowledge, those of Plato, Epicurus, the Stoics and the Skeptics.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As it was stated in the opening paragraph of this essay everyone has their own theory of what constitutes knowledge. That is why I think it would be beneficial for me to state what I believe knowledge is. First of all I don’t think anyone can ever know anything for certain. I believe that we can sense certain sights, smells, sounds, etc. but our senses could be mistaken. We are let down by our senses all the time we see optical illusions, mirages, mishear people, confuse odors and the like. Also if you think about all of the senses that we are lacking that other species have we are missing out on a great portion of reality. For example bloodhounds have a drastically stronger sense of smell, snakes can see heat, dolphins and bats communicate through high frequency sounds that we can not dream of hearing. Added to all the other things that go on around us daily that we are missing shows me that we are missing out on what is truly reality. We can only hope to experience, or â€Å"know† our own very limited reality. So to that end that is one reason I don’t think we can ever really know anything. In regards to knowledge of human reality I believe that we may be able to be very confident of certain things but I wouldn’t go so far as to say we know them. To me knowledge is having 100% certainty of a fact and that’s dangerous in my opinion because nothing we experience is certain. Here I split what has been called knowledge into empirical knowledge, rational knowledge and Knowledge that we hear from others. However I think that each one of these categories has their own shortcomings and I’ll deal with them from the most credible source of knowledge to the least. As I explained before the senses can deceive us and there is no reason to believe that anything we see is reality. Eve... ...ntrol plays an extremely important part in the process of chasing knowledge. It takes a great deal of self control to admit to yourself that you do not know something. It is a common human characteristic to assume that you know a certain piece of information and you need to restrain yourself and at least double check the validity of the statement. It is also very important to remember how you came to â€Å"know† the information. Many people claim to know things that they have learned in class, from parents, or in church. However, none of these are valid avenues to true knowledge. Just because another individual says something that makes some sense doesn’t mean it’s correct. The individual needs to be wary of believing that they know things. It is one thing to believe in something but it is a far greater commitment to say that you know.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In conclusion I agree with some of the points made by the classical philosophers on the subject of knowledge, but I don’t agree with any of their entire theories. Socrates, Epicuris, the skeptics and the Stoics all make valid points but also stray from my view of what knowledge is. However, I am quite sure that my theory could be wrong as well.

Reaction Paper on Hello Garci Tape Wiretapping Issue

The electoral fraud issue on last 2004 election has proven an obvious breach in the national security. The tape evidence presented by Samuel Ong, former National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) deputy director for intelligence, contained a conversation between the former President Arroyo and Commissioner Virgilio Garcillano. Having analyzed the content of the said conversation, proven and admitted by the former president that the voice was hers, somehow confirmed the point of manipulation of the count in favor of the administration , perpetrated by the COMELEC However, even with the evidences, with the public apology made by the former president herself, and with the possible outcomes known, still no final course of action was taken to resolve GMA’s legitimacy or so to prevent electoral fraud. This is only due to the fact that the ‘original tape’ has not been authenticated by the anonymous wiretapper. If I may put my two cents in, our election system is just so full of dirty tricks. No one gets caught or punished also because of the flaws in the Philippine law and electoral rules. The fraudulent electoral system has been the way of the cheaters to win, and with their get away schemes comes the delayed progress of the country. Most are often suspicious of the winners and it is not a surprise that people generally doubt their leaders. If the leader is successful of curtailing the truth, what more can people expect of its underlings? Along with this, it is only imperative that electoral reforms be pushed through the senate or the country will continue to suffer from recurrence of such scandals and crisis. After the sprung of the aforementioned issue, wiretapping became a major contributor on certain issues from the government. Some of which are those that involve Chair Benjamin Abalos and Jose de Venecia III in connection with the $329-million National Broadband Network (NBN) contract, and Cheche Lazaro’s wiretapping case filed by the GSIS. The latter however in opinion of the many, was only one of the attempts by government agencies to silence the media through harassment and intimidation. None of the aforementioned issues that involve wiretapping has been resolved. It is just poignant that people find no justice in the wrongdoings of those in high power. Seemingly, in most cases our own system constricts punishments of those guilty personnel, only allowing recurrence of such events. If only our country IS or WILL be able to make a change for the greater good, those types of cases will not be dismissed without fair justice.

Monitor Disease And Spread Health And Social Care Essay

Epidemiologic surveies are meant to supervise disease and spread within assorted populations. The results of surveies are meant to supply valid, accurate information about causes, bars, and interventions for disease ( Ashengrau & A ; Seage, 2008 ) . Experimental surveies are believed to supply more scientifically accurate information than experimental surveies. When get downing an experimental survey, before enrolling participants, research workers must take a survey design and suggest a hypothesis. The hypothesis will explicate the intent of the survey, the survey design, and the exact lineation, timeline, and execution of the survey. For illustration, a survey conducted by Berman, Jones, & A ; McCloskey ( 2005 ) was proposed to turn out that the side effects of Valium cause suicidal, self- aggressive Acts of the Apostless. Research workers wanted to carry on the survey in a research lab puting where three randomly- assigned groups would be administered a placebo, 5 milligram, or 10 mg Valium. Self- aggressive behaviour was measured by research workers after the capsules were distributed to all experimental groups. Participants were so provided the opportunity to self- administer electric dazes to themselves. After the survey was approved, participants were recruited based on the eligibility criterions and include inclusion and exclusion standards. Inclusion standards were based on the participant ‘s wellness history. Diazepam respondents were screened by telephone, to unwrap medical information that would except them from the survey, such as chronic or neurological unwellness and prescription drug use. The exclusion standards were incompatibilities to the surveies agents, or participants intending the participants had features that made them ineligible for the survey. Using either a random or non-random method to delegate persons into a survey group, during an experimental survey participants are separated into either two or more groups. In the Valium survey, 46 healthy grownups, 27 work forces and 19 adult females, that are a average age of 22.87 old ages old ( Berman, Jones, & A ; McCloskey, 2005 ) . One group is treated with the agent while the control group is receives inactive intervention, or no intervention at all. Research workers will so administer the interventions and observe participants. The concluding phase is known as the follow-up phase where the testers collect consequences. â€Å" If the end of the survey is to forestall the happening of disease, the result may include the precursors of disease or the first happening of disease. On the other manus, if the survey is proving a new intervention among persons who already have a disease, outcomes may include disease return, symptom betterment, length of endurance, or side effects † ( Ashengrau & A ; Seage, 2008, p. 172 ) . Diazepam participants were observed 40 proceedingss after taking the medicine. Consequences proved that Valium is related to self- aggressive behaviours. â€Å" Diazepam ( 10 milligram ) was associated with higher norm shock self-administered than placebo. Subjects having 10 mg Valium were besides more likely to try to self-administer a daze that they were led to believe was â€Å" terrible † and painful † ( Berman, Jones, & A ; McCloskey, 2005, p.100 ) . Experimental surveies besides have benefits. They are considered to be more relaxed surveies because they, â€Å" take advantage of the fact that people are exposed to noxious and/or healthy substances through their personal wonts, business, topographic point of abode, and so on † ( Ashengrau & A ; Seage, 2008, p. 140 ) . There are two different types of observation surveies, one being cohort surveies and the other being case- control surveies. Although experimental surveies provide utile scientifically accurate information they can be impractical because they are dearly-won, sometimes unethical, and participants are non ever willing to be involved in a survey that involves digesting non-prescribed medicine ( Ashengrau & A ; Seage, 2008 ) . Because of this, experimental surveies are used most frequently by epidemiologists. Cohort surveies look at one or more instances of exposure, intending participants with similar features are looked at based their initial exposure position and followed over a period of clip to find the wellness results. For illustration Tomson, Perucca, and Battino ( 2004 ) conducted a survey on adult females of childbearing age with epilepsy and the effects of antiepileptic drugs on gestation results. The populations studied in cohort surveies are: unfastened, fixed, or closed. No affair the survey chosen, participants are still grouped harmonizing to their exposure and followed over clip. Open cohort surveies involve participants who leave the survey if they are no longer eligible. For illustration, research workers are carry oning a cohort survey of birth defect frequence among Arizona occupants, aged 20-40, who are female, between the old ages 2000-2012, who have epilepsy. This specific population is being used to understand the high hazard of birth defects within people with those features. If person turned 41, and moved to New York they would no longer be eligible for the survey. A fixed cohort is one in which a participant is involved in an irrevokable event, â€Å" for illustration, undergoing a medical process, giving birth to a kid, functioning in the military, eating contaminated nutrient at a field day, or being present a adult male made or natural catastrophe † ( Ashengrau & A ; Seage, 2008, p. 204 ) . Cohort surveies use clocking to find a participant ‘s exposure to disease. Prospective surveies group instances based on past or current exposure and follow them to understand their wellness results in the hereafter. Retrospective survey participants are grouped based on past exposure and research workers look at results that have already occurred. In ambidirectional cohort surveies elements of both prospective and retrospective surveies are used. Cohort surveies, like experimental surveies, test a hypothesis based on exposures, results, and other lending factors. For illustration, research workers follow participants by roll uping medical records and consequences, interviews, physical scrutinies, and detecting their environment ( Ashengrau & A ; Seage, 2008 ) . While analyzing the effects of antiepileptic drugs on gestation, research workers followed adult females by carry oning phone interviews monthly and administering studies. These adult females were diagnosed epileptics taking medicine ; the research workers followed them throughout their gestations to understand the affects of different anti-epileptic drugs on birth results ( Tomson, Perucca, & A ; Battino, 2004 ) . A case-control survey is another experimental survey that is similar to a cohort survey. Case- control surveies look at the correlativity between exposure and disease. They can be used alternatively of cohort surveies if, â€Å" the exposure informations is hard or expensive to obtain, the disease is rare, the disease has long initiation and latent period, small is known about the disease, or the implicit in population is dynamic † ( Ashengrau & A ; Seage, 2008, p. 234 ) . Alternatively of making a hypothesis, in case- control surveies research workers create a instance definition and they separate their participants into groups based on whether or non they have the disease or do non hold the disease. The ground that case- control surveies are less expensive is because research workers collect informations from infirmaries, clinics, decease certifications, studies, particular describing systems, friends, and relations of instances ; control groups are besides selected from the se resources. Control groups are the population that provides information on exposure distribution ( Ashengrau & A ; Seage, 2008 ) . Data collected is similar to cohort surveies. Depending on the survey, research workers will carry on personal interviews ; administer studies, request research lab consequences, and medical records to find the disease rates. All surveies have their advantages and disadvantages. Experimental surveies provide utile statistics that prove whether agents involved in intervention of a disease work. But, there are multiple disadvantages to experimental surveies. They are expensive and some surveies are considered unethical. Medical professionals and the general population are non willing to take part in a survey where absolutely healthy persons could have intervention for a status they do non hold. Experimental surveies are popular among epidemiologists because they are less expensive, unlike experimental surveies. Cohort surveies can straight mensurate disease, incident, or hazard. They can besides measure multiple effects of an exposure, but they are still expensive and inefficient when used on diseases that began a long clip ago with hibernating periods. Case- control surveies are utile when analyzing rare diseases within a big population. All three surveies are used by epidemiologists. Different surveies ar e chosen depending on the research being conducted and the population being studied.

Free Essays on The Truth About Teens (alcohol, Sex, Pot)

In today’s society, teenagers have been stereotyped as smoking, sex-crazed, drunk youth. I conducted a survey to find out just how accurate this typecast was. In my survey I asked five questions: their age, gender, religion, what they thought was most popular out of drinking, smoking, or sex, and whether they were involved in any, all, or none of the three activities. I conducted my survey on the internet so that I would be able to receive a wider range of opinion and have more â€Å"accurate† results. I asked the questions of age and gender to find out if the results of the poll were different between age or sex. I also thought that the question of asking whether they were religious or not was very important to the survey. I wanted to find out if the nonreligious participants were more or less likely to think others were drinking, smoking, or having sex, or whether they themselves were doing any of these activities more than the religious participants. While gathering my information I realized that asking the question of religion was more important than I had originally thought it would be. Religion had a factor, yes, but I also found it to be self-explanatory. None of the religious teens did any of the activities. Although, perhaps not so â€Å"wild† as some people think, some nonreligious teens did none of the activities. The universe for my poll was 30 people. Eighteen of which were female, 12 were male. The range of age was 14 years old to 19 years old. I wanted to have the ages of my participants in their teens because my poll is based strictly on teenagers; also, one of my questions was that of an opinion of teenagers by their peers. I was a little surprised at how many teenagers had no preference of religion or just did not care about religion at all. Eleven of the 18 females polled did not consider themselves religious, and four of the 18 thought they were â€Å"kind of† religious (whatever that means). Five o... Free Essays on The Truth About Teens (alcohol, Sex, Pot) Free Essays on The Truth About Teens (alcohol, Sex, Pot) In today’s society, teenagers have been stereotyped as smoking, sex-crazed, drunk youth. I conducted a survey to find out just how accurate this typecast was. In my survey I asked five questions: their age, gender, religion, what they thought was most popular out of drinking, smoking, or sex, and whether they were involved in any, all, or none of the three activities. I conducted my survey on the internet so that I would be able to receive a wider range of opinion and have more â€Å"accurate† results. I asked the questions of age and gender to find out if the results of the poll were different between age or sex. I also thought that the question of asking whether they were religious or not was very important to the survey. I wanted to find out if the nonreligious participants were more or less likely to think others were drinking, smoking, or having sex, or whether they themselves were doing any of these activities more than the religious participants. While gathering my information I realized that asking the question of religion was more important than I had originally thought it would be. Religion had a factor, yes, but I also found it to be self-explanatory. None of the religious teens did any of the activities. Although, perhaps not so â€Å"wild† as some people think, some nonreligious teens did none of the activities. The universe for my poll was 30 people. Eighteen of which were female, 12 were male. The range of age was 14 years old to 19 years old. I wanted to have the ages of my participants in their teens because my poll is based strictly on teenagers; also, one of my questions was that of an opinion of teenagers by their peers. I was a little surprised at how many teenagers had no preference of religion or just did not care about religion at all. Eleven of the 18 females polled did not consider themselves religious, and four of the 18 thought they were â€Å"kind of† religious (whatever that means). Five o...

A Study On A Structural Necessity Architecture Essay

Within the societal scientific disciplines the term construction besides seems have different options. At possibly the most cardinal degree, within the field, the societal scientific disciplines themselves are broken into separate subjects in an attempt to decently analyze, analyse, and categorise different types of information, therefore supplying a sense of order or construction. Yet even these divisions are inconsistent across the field. At one institute sociology and anthropology may be joined in a individual plan of survey yet at others they are wholly separate and possibly assorted with another, such as linguistics. Beyond specifying itself the societal scientific disciplines have a singular ability for classifying, reclassifying, and re-reclassifying things ( including but barely limited to race, civilization, historical periods, theoretical models, methodological analysiss, and gender ) on a regular footing. In 1978, Edward Said, in his book Orientalism, identified a really controversial division between Europe and the Orient. Since so there have been important arguments on the ground for such a division, and even if such a division genuinely existed. Janet Abu-Lughod, in 1989 wrote â€Å" Analyzing a System in Formation † , in which she agreed that there is a recognizable division between the Europe and the remainder of the universe. Indeed she suggests that there is a incorporate universe construction and it is based on a Eurocentric theoretical account which developed around the 14th century. Within societal scientific disciplines this of course raises the inquiry, is the strong accent we give to construction an unconscious affect of the Eurocentric beginning of our theoretical account? Or is construction a more permeant thought? This essay contends that while a big part of the authorship in societal scientific discipline literature is Eurocentric in beginning, the construction, and more specifically the thought of construction is non limited to European idea. Levi-Strauss ‘ thoughts of infrastructure offers a strong statement that construction, as Abu-Lughod describes it, is simply the superstructure representation of an implicit in infrastructure common throughout all human civilizations. Then before turn toing the signifier of construction in the superstructure of our modern universe system, we must inquire whether determine whether construction is needed, or instead can we gestate of a universe, or societal scientific disciplines, without construction? Finally, manners of communicating will be used to demo how construction is exhaustively embedded in our universe even when it is non perceived. InAnalyzing a System in Formation, Janet Abu-Lughod really indicates her beliefs that the current construction of societal scientific disciplines is dominated by its European beginnings. Indeed while citing others, she gives provinces that the current universe system is wholly Eurocentric. For illustration, she recognizes Immanuel Wallerstein for coining the term â€Å" modern world-system † and that Europe lead development of this system, which has lasted more than 500 old ages. ( Abu-Lughod, 4 ) She supports this contention with the plants of Fernand Braudel and Eric Wolff who describe how a euro-centered universe was established in the 14th century and was the footing for the current universe system. ( Abu-Lughod, 9 ) Indeed, she accuses Braudel of doing an â€Å" unconscious Eurocentric faux pas. † ( Abu-Lughod, 11 ) In these illustrations the thought of Eurocentrism is difficult to lose. As Abu-Lughod points out, â€Å" Before Europe becameoneof the world-economies in the twelfth and 13th centuries†¦ there were legion pre-existent world-economies. † ( 12 ) Looking at the modern system it is possibly excessively easy to see the strength of the European influence upon the system, whether in currency rates, human rights issues, or a assortment of other countries. But to state that the modern system is purely based on this influence suggests that all other systems have either been discarded or go subservient to the Euro-centric theoretical account. Yet we have merely to come in a non-European state to recognize merely how diverse the differences elsewhere remain. Surely the strong grades of European influences are felt in South Africa or India, where English is widely spoken. And similarly in Algeria and Egypt where Arabic is still the national linguistic communication but a turning per centum of the population speak French and English, severally. Yet in each instance, although they have adopted parts of the Euro-centric theoretical account, they have each molded their ain signifier. Rather than being consumed Europe they have been influenced by it. But the influence is non unidimensional, instead influences flow back and Forth between parts. The ongoing argument in France sing hijab and other spiritual symbols in public schools is declarative of the concern felt by many in France of the turning Muslim population. Likewise, the alterations in corporate leading methods over the past decennary, from individualistic to more group-oriented, reflect an inflow of new thoughts from Japan and other states in Southeast Asia. In the terminal, Abu-Lughod was at least partly right ; Europe has influenced the construction of the world-system. But the world-system, and including Europe, has been influenced by the remainder of the universe. In a similar mode, while the construction of societal scientific disciplines found its beginnings in Europe it has, particularly in recent decennaries, been strongly influenced by the remainder of the universe. The construction that remains is non a massive creative activity but instead an merger which is invariably in flux. Leading possibly to the inevitable inquiry, are we utilizing the right, or the best system? Or do we even need to make this construction? When composingThe Ritual Processin 1969 Victor Turner gave us the term ‘anti-structure ‘ . His term was non meant to connote a deficiency of construction. In â€Å" Metaphors of Anti-Structure in Religious Culture † he clarified his term stating, â€Å" †¦ the ‘anti ‘ is here merely used strategically and does non connote a extremist negativeness. † ( 272 ) He farther explains, â€Å" I do non seek the obliteration of affair by signifier. † ( 273 ) Rather than proposing non-structure, the term anti-structure is conceived as yet another portion of the whole non to the full accounted for within the bing construction ; they are two-sides of the same coin. Within societal scientific disciplines as a whole at that place ever seems to be a construction. Disciplines are broken down by topics or methods. Subjects are broken down by location or clip period. Information is so pigeon-holed into a peculiar subject within a topic under a subject. Sometimes these topics and subjects are realigned, and sometimes information is referenced in multiple topographic points, but there is consistent effort to happen a topographic point everything ; or as the expression goes, â€Å" A topographic point for everything and everything in its topographic point. † But why must everything be put in its topographic point? And is there truly a topographic point for everything? Historically, our classification systems last until something does n’t suit. After seeking legion unsuccessful ways to accommodate our theoretical account and our information we acknowledge the job and expression for a new construction ; what sociology of cognition would cal cubic decimeter a revolution of cognition. But is a construction necessary? Can we gestate of our societal scientific discipline information outside the restraints of construction? If it is possible, we do we invariably seek to develop a more accurate and/or effectual construction? One might reason that early ethnographers, such as Marco Polo and Sir Richard Francis Burton worked outside the restraints of construction. They successfully documented important information without being purely attached to a peculiar subject. Indeed such plants frequently contain a wealth of information because they include a great assortment of different types of information. In a similar mode Clifford Geertz ‘ experience as described inDeep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfightcan be viewed as working outside the constituted construction. His intended survey was, no uncertainty, sanctioned and developed along certain guidelines. However, when he allowed himself to be caught up in rabble outlook brought on by the sudden reaching of the constabulary he was non moving within the restraints of any guidelines. Indeed Geertz ‘ description of the police officer ‘s action on page 415 suggest that he was movingagainstthe established construction. When we read about the Balinese cockfight and implicit in construction is easy to individuality. Peopless are identified by originals and specific subjects are ethical motives are indicated. The analysis itself is really structured, and that is where the construction seems to fall within much of the societal scientific disciplines, particularly anthropology. In order to pass on the information to others we construction it in such as manner that it becomes relevant to our audience. Yet the existent assemblage of information, though possibly limited by a pre-defined field site and research inquiries, can be a non-structured action. In my research of the effects of nomadic communicating engineerings, I frequently find it hard to non see a construction. Due to my experience working on the mechanical side of the engineering, I frequently construction the engineerings, and thereby the people, without detecting. A adult male in a suit utilizing a Blackberry phone seems is deemed a concern adult male, while a similar adult male have oning denims and utilizing an iPhone is deemed a college pupil. Likewise, person utilizing Linux is considered more technologically savvy than person utilizing Windows or an Apple OS, irrespective of their existent competency. From a proficient position, nomadic phones require a physical web to enable communicating. Unlike a land line phone which offers interaction between to fixed points in infinite, a nomadic phone offers an tantamount interaction at two random points. Furthermore, the cellular engineerings allow for non-stationary points, significance communicators are no longer tied to a fixed location. Enabling this nomadic communicating is an substructure web kindred to Levi-Strauss ‘ infrastructure of society. This is the unseeable, underlying system which ties everything together. With nomadic phones, a cellular web must be developed and maintained. This web must let easy connexion and must be linked to other cellular webs to enable transferring of one communicator to different locations with disrupting the manner of communicating. Finally, for this method to be genuinely effectual the web must be built around the communicators and their venues ; a cellular web in an empty desert serves no intent. Developing an effectual web therefore requires consciousness of bing locations of communicators and a method of mapping that information into a cellular web. Thus a construction develops based on the demands of a community. Of class, the communicators are by and large incognizant of this web. A adult male simply dials a figure on his Mobile phone, irrespective of where he is, and his married woman replies at some other unknown and apparently unrelated location. There is no demand for the users of this system to be cognizant of its nature, however the system does be. It is really easy to look around and see merely pandemonium. We are non required to see constructions in our day-to-day life. We take the construction itself for granted, yet that does non intend it does non be. We may gestate of cases where persons move outside the construction, or in a non-structured signifier. Yet when we seek communicate these actions we do so in a structured mode. The analysis, the manner we present the information, even the really linguistic communication itself contains an in agreement upon construction which allows us to pass on. But the construction is non massive and unchanging. A changeless duologue between different influences forms and reshapes the construction. We influence others even while we are influenced. At times a certain type of construction, such as the European theoretical account may look to rule but in clip even it is seen to be influenced by others. In the terminal thought of construction is in an built-in thought throughout the universe, a nd it is merely the peculiar signifier, what Levi-Strauss called the superstructure, that is distinguishable. Bibliography Abu-Lughod, J. ( 1989 ) . â€Å" Analyzing a System in Formation. † InBefore European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250-1350. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Pp 3-40. Althusser, L. ( 1970 ) .Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses.Retrieved on 28 Feb 10, From The Louis Althusser Internet Archive: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.marxists.org/reference/archive/althusser/1970/ideology.htm. DiTornaso, N. ( 1982 ) . â€Å" ‘Sociological Reductionism ‘ from Parsons to Althusser: Associating Action and Structure in Social Theory. †American Sociological Review, 47 ( 1 ) : 14-28. Geertz, C. ( 1973 ) . â€Å" Deep Play: Notes on a Balinese Cockfight. † InThe Interpretation of Cultures. London, UK: Hutchinson, Pp 412-454. Geertz, C. ( 1973 ) . â€Å" Thick Description: Toward an Interpretive Theory of Culture. † InThe Interpretation of Cultures. London, UK: Hutchinson, Pp 3-30. Goffman, E. ( 1963 ) . â€Å" Stigma and Social Identity. † InStigma: Notes on the Management of a Spoiled Identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Pp. 1-40. Levi-Strauss, C. ( 1958 ) . â€Å" Structural Analysis in Linguistics and in Anthropology. † Retrieved on 13 Feb 10, From The Marxist Internet Archivess: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/levistra.htm. Mintz, S. ( 1977 ) . â€Å" The Alleged World System: Local Initiative and Local Response. †Dialectical Anthropology, 2 ( 4 ) : 253-270. Nugent, D. ( 2009 ) . â€Å" Knowledge and Empire: The Social Sciences and United States Imperial Expansion. †Identities:Global Studies in Culture and Power, 17 ( 1 ) : 2-44. Trouillot, M-R. ( 1991 ) . â€Å" Anthropology and the Savage Slot: The Poeticss and Politicss of Otherness. † InRecapturing Anthropology: Working in the Present. Richard Fox ( erectile dysfunction ) . Pp. 17-44. Turner, V. ( 1975 ) . â€Å" Metaphors of Anti-Structure in Religious Culture. † InDramas, Fields and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Pp. 272-300.

Several topics included in the uploaded file (questions from the case Essay

Several topics included in the uploaded file (questions from the case study) - Essay Example There are many methods of investment appraisal. Each method analyses the investment in different ways. The three main methods are: ‘Payback time’, ‘Average / Annual rate of return’ and ‘Net present value (NPV)’. Payback method is used to compare various projects for a business; the project which gives the best returns is considered. It generally calculates the time taken for the return of capital invested. Similarly if the annual return rate is considered, the projects are selected based on the one providing highest annual returns. The company’s cash flow can change from time to time; thus, this method is helpful as it considers the ‘rate of returns’. Usually, there is a time lag in receiving the payment for the business done and money value might be inflated or deflated during this time lag. Hence, in the ‘Net Present Value’ or ‘Discounted Cash Flow’ method, the ‘real value’ of the mone y is considered. The returns calculated using this method is called ‘Real Return’ (Investment Appraisal, 2008). With respect to Hazlewood Sandwiches, capital investment was made for the following reasons: It was observed that people, in general, had become very busy with their existing jobs or multiple jobs and hence had very little time to cook. This was the main reason to foresee an increase the demand for sandwiches. Secondly, due to good earning and spending power of the people, they preferred to pay others to get their food prepared, rather than painstakingly cooking food themselves. This served as a time saver and therefore increased demand for readymade sandwiches. Thirdly, Hazlewood Sandwiches could provide foodstuffs with better quality than the best existing in market, promising exponential growth in market. In support to these factors, the new factory setup assured a superior production flow line which decreased the number of workers needed to move materials within the factory and helped to manage the inward movement of raw materials to outward movement of finished goods. Hence, these three reasons mainly influenced Hazlewood Sandwiches’ decision to make capital investment. Q2: Discuss the differences, advantages and disadvantages of the three investment decision techniques mentioned in the case. Investment appraisal decisions are very crucial for any company, since it involves the future of the company. Decisions have to be made between various alternative project plans which decide the next steps of the company. There are 3 techniques of investment appraisal: The first technique is ‘The Payback Method’. It directly calculates how quickly the return of the investment covers the investment on the project. Returns on investment are calculated for all the alternative projects in hand. It is based on the shortest payback period, contributing in the prevention of cash flow problems. It is known for its simplicity and ada ptability to changing technology as the cost of machinery can be recovered before the next new model is released. The disadvantage is that the returns after this period are ignored. Additionally, the real value of money is not accounted since value of money is considered directly without considering the inflation effects on money value (Business Studies online, Investment appraisal, Chapter 4a.2.2, 4a.2.3). The ‘Average Rate of Return’